In The Footsteps Of Arthur, Part Five: Avalon

Then Sir Bedivere cried: Ah my lord Arthur, what shall become of me, now ye go from me and leave me here alone among mine enemies? Comfort thyself, said the king, and do as well as they mayest, for in me is no trust for to trust in; for I will into the vale of Avilion to heal me of my grievous wound: and if thou never hear more of me, pray for my soul.
   Sir Thomas Malory, Le Morte D'Arthur

  Of the locations connected with King Arthur, none is so mystical as the one that appears at the end of his story: Avalon. Etymologically, the word appears to be derived from the Brythonic abal/afal/afall, meaning 'apple', and the notion of an 'Island of Apples' may be connected to Irish 'Otherworld' legends. It makes its first appearance in Arthurian lore in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Regum Historia Brittaniae, as the site where Excalibur was forged and where the King was transported after receiving a head wound at the Battle of Camlann... an event which we shall briefly explore.

The Battle of Camlann was, in most versions of the story, fought between the Knights loyal to Arthur and those who sided with his treacherous nephew Sir Mordred. It was first mentioned in the Annales Cambriae as having taken place in the year 537: 'the strife of Camlann in which Arthur and Medraut perished'. With the usual infuriating vagueness of early Arthurian references, it fails to specify a location or whether Arthur and Mordred were enemies or allies. The blossoming of legend around Arthur's final battle seems to have stemmed from this short and vague comment. References to the battle later turn up in the folkloric Welsh Triads, although these vary as to explaining its cause.

Arthur and Mordred meet at Camlann. By Arthur Rackham, 1917

The site of Camlann has been suggested in a myriad of places. Queen's Camel in Somerset, close to the South Cadbury hillfort that has been suggested as the site of Camelot.  A river in Gwynedd called Camlan. Somewhere on Salisbury Plain. Outside the town of Camelford in Cornwall.

Although the Camelford site is based on a fanciful (or perhaps merely hopeful) reading of an inscribed stone in the vicinity, it lies in an area much defined by proximity to the supposed Arthurian sites of Tintagel and Castle Killibury, and in a spirited attempt to emphasise Arthur's Cornish connection, the supposed site has become a visitor attraction in recent years. Calling itself the Arthurian Centre, it contains 20 acres of North Cornwall countryside abutting the River Camel (at this point an attractive stream). It does seem possible that a battle was fought here in antiquity, but is most likely to have been the Battle of Camelford, fought between the defending Cornish and the invading Saxon King Egbert in 823.

 And what of the Slaughterbridge Stone, used for centuries to suggest that this was the site of Camlann? It was first described by the Cornish antiquary Richard Carew in 1602 in his The Survey Of Cornwall... 'the folke thereabouts will show you a stone bearing Arthur's name...'

The Slaughterbridge Stone lies on the banks of the Camel. Photo by Babelstone.

  Over nine feet long, it now lies recumbent by the side of the stream, presumably having been cast down at some point from its original upright position. The inscription has faded, but has been dated possibly to the 540's (contemporary with Camlann). It is one of the few inscribed stones to use both Latin and Ogham script, the latter deriving from Ireland, and the tentative readings of the damaged inscription do indicate a hybrid of Latin and Irish names: LATINI IC IACIT FILIUS MACARI (Latinus lies here, the son of Macarius). The Arthur connection lies with earlier readings which suggested that the inscription actually read LATIN HIC JACET FILIUS MAGNI ARTURI (Here lies Latin the son of Arthur the Great).

Inscription on the Slaughterbridge Stone

  A more likely site for the Battle of Camlann lies in the western half of Hadrian's Wall. One of the forts along the Wall was, according to the late Roman document the Notitia Dignitatum, named CAMBOGLANNA, 'crooked riverbank'. It was long believed that this referred to the fort of Birdoswald, an evocative site that exists today next to an impressive section of the Wall. However, it is now believed that the fort at Birdoswald was BANNA and that the neighbouring fort, seven miles west at Castlesteads, was the real CAMBOGLANNA. Nevertheless, both sites are adjacent to the great Roman border and suggest, if Camlann was indeed fought here, that Arthur's enemy may have been the Scotti or the Picts.

The author at Birdoswald Fort, BANNA, Hadrian's Wall. (c) Emily McManus

Archaeologists discovered that a timber hall of the Arthurian period had been erected on the site of Roman granaries at BANNA, which has led to much debate over activity in the area during this period. Alas, of the real CAMBOGLANNA at Castlesteads, little remains. The adjacent section of Hadrian's Wall was virtually obliterated to provide building material for Lanercost Priory, and the site of the fort itself was levelled in the late eighteenth century when Castlesteads House and its gardens were constructed on the site.

Altar dedicated to Jupiter, found at CAMBOGLANNA at an unknown date

 According to the stories, Arthur and Mordred met in hand-to-hand combat toward the end of the battle. Mordred dealt the King a serious sword wound to the head before himself being  fatally struck down. Sir Bedivere, one of the few survivors of the strife, was instructed to return the sword Excalibur to the Lady of the Lake. Subsequently, Arthur was borne off to the Isle of Avalon on a barge accompanied by the Isle's queens, one of whom was Morgan Le Fay.

A rather hectic 13th-century depiction of the Battle of Camlann

Arthur was never seen again. In some versions of the story, such as Malory, he dies. In others he merely rests, awaiting the time that his country will need him so that he may return. Rex Quondam, Rexque Futurus. The Once And Future King.

So what of the mysterious 'Insula Avallonis', first mentioned in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia? He returns to it with a little more detail in his later work Vita Merlini, but this time he describes it as 'Insula Pomorum' - the Isle of Apples. This ties in with the Celtic word 'afal' for apple, and the Welsh spelling of Avalon as Afallach. He also seems to be have been inspired, by this time, by the work of Saint Isidore of Seville (c.560-636). This scholarly Archbishop, in his highly influential work Etymologiae, describes the Isles of the Fortunate where fruit grows in abundance. These have been assumed to be the Canary Islands. Monmouth, in the Vita, describes Avalon as the 'Fortunate Isle' where fruit grows in abundance. He describes it as being occupied by nine sisters, the foremost of whom is Morgan le Fay. The others, of somewhat lesser importance in the Arthurian legends, are Moronoe, Mazoe, Gliten, Glitonea, Gliton, Tyronoe, Thiten and Thiton. Notice how they are divided by their initials into groups of three, and combined form 3 X 3. This is the rhetorical trick used by the later Welsh Triads.

James Archer, 1860. Much visual art regarding Avalon emphasises its 'fairytale' nature

Putting aside the disconcerting notion that Monmouth may have based his description of Avalon on Tenerife, is there anything in the historical record to indicate that this otherworldly realm may have been based upon a more corporeal site? Oddly enough, there may be...

A popular candidate for the prototype of King Arthur is one Riothamus, a historical figure who was active around 470 C.E .Scholars of the period believe that this name may be derived from 'Rigotamus', a title meaning 'Highest King', and the Celtic linguist Leon Fleuriot argued that he may have been Ambrosius Aurelianus, the warlord mentioned by Gildas as holding back the Saxon tide.

 Although he is as obscure as most warchiefs of the period, there is no doubt that Riothamus existed. A letter survives from Sidonius Apollinaris, the Bishop of Clermont, asking Riothamus for redress regarding a humble landowner whose slaves had been enticed away by a group of Bretons (presumably part of Riothamus' 12000-strong army). According to the historian Jordanes, writing from Constantinople about eighty years later, Riothamus was a leader from Britain or Brittany (possibly both) who marched with his army to defeat the depradations of the Visigoths. It is believed by Geoffrey Ashe and others that this may be the basis of Arthur's continental adventures in Monmouth's Historia.

Apparently, Riothamus' war against the Visigoths was the result of a call from aid from the Roman Emperor Anthemius. Unfortunately, Riothamus does not seem to have been as successful as the legendary King whose adventures he may have inspired. Possibly betrayed by the Prefect of Gaul, Arvandus, Riothamus found himself intercepted by the Visigoth King Euric and, according to the writer Gregory of Tours, 'The Brittani were driven from Bourges by the Goths and many of them perished at the village of Deols'. Riothamus survived this rout and fled into Burgundy, at which point he disappears from the historical record. His last known position was near a Burgundian town called Avallon. This town, the Roman ABALLO, exists today with a population of 7700 and is known for the manufacture, among other things, of gingerbread. It has been twinned with various European towns, including Tenterden in Kent - another area known for apples!

Avallon, Burgundy.

 Unfortunately, the Burgundian connection with the Isle of Avalon has not endured well, despite the possible connection with the Historia. Only a few decades after that popular book was written, an event occurred that switched the focus of Avalon's location elsewhere... and that location has proved popular right up until the present day. Known to the Britons as Ynys Witrin, the Isle of Glass, it is better known today as the Somerset town of Glastonbury.

The Isle Of Glass

Modern Glastonbury is a Mecca for both Christians and Neo-Pagans, fascinated by the legends surrounding the area and the evocative sites that can still be visited. Two neighbouring springs, the Red Spring and the White Spring, produce two completely different types of mineral water and are venerated for their mystical connections with Grail lore and Joseph of Arimathea. The unmistakeable conical shape of Glastonbury Tor dominates the town, and its folkloric connections with Arthur vie with the ruins of the town's Abbey as popular with visitors seeking the legend.

Chalice Well, a popular sacred site for both Christians and NeoPagans

So how did this curious town become so enmeshed in the Arthur legend, and why do so many consider it Avalon?

In the year 1184, only a few decades after the Historia Regum Brittaniae popularised the Arthur legend across Europe, the influential Benedictine Abbey at Glastonbury suffered a major fire which destroyed most of its monastic buildings. Rebuilding began immediately, and in 1190, under the directions of the Abbot Henry de Sully, monks dug to a depth of 16 feet at a point in the Abbey cemetery that was marked by two tapering crosses. Apparently, a travelling Welsh bard had entrusted to King Henry II the supposed site of King Arthur's burial, and at some point prior to his death in 1189, the King had passed this information to the Abbot.

The exhumation at Glastonbury

At a depth of several feet the monks recovered a lead cross. Digging further, they found a treetrunk burial - two skeletons encased in a hollowed-out tree. A male skeleton of large proportions was accompanied by a smaller female skeleton with traces of blond hair that disentegrated to the touch. The cross, which was drawn by William Camden in 1607, bore the inscription 'HIC IACET SEPTULUS INCLITUS REX ARTURIUS IN INSULA AVALONIA', meaning 'Here lies the famous King Arthur in the Isle of Avalon'. Some chroniclers, perhaps referring to an inscription on the other face of the cross which was not drawn by Camden, claim it read 'Here lies the famous King Arthur with his second wife Guinevere in the Isle of Avalon'.

Edward I had a marble tomb built for the re-internment of the pair, and the cross was laid on top of it. When the tomb was destroyed at some point following the Dissolution of the Monasteries, the cross was kept by St John's Church in Glastonbury, subsequently being held at Wells until it disappeared from history.

The Arthur Cross, after Camden

Most scholars believe the whole exhumation to have been a hoax, perpetuated by the Abbey as a fund-raising exercise for the rebuilding. Curiously, however, the monks never seem to have 'cashed in' to any great degree. The marble tomb was not commissioned until the reign of Edward Longshanks and he, as a warrior King fighting the Welsh, had good reason to display that the legendary Arthur, who was meant to return and lead the Britons, was in fact six feet under.

Others have pointed out that the lettering on the Cross is tenth-century, and may date from when Abbot Dunstan (later an important Archbishop of Canterbury) ordered the level of the cemetery to be raised.

Whatever the truth behind the exhumation, it sealed Glastonbury's position as the Isle of Avalon up to the present day. The site of the tomb is marked in the Abbey grounds, and the legend has also encompassed the landmark Glastonbury Tor.

The site of Arthur's tomb

The Tor is a familiar landmark, a conical, terraced hill with a church tower perched on top (the rest of the church having been destroyed in a medieval earthquake). From the summit, a clear day's view will show you South Cadbury Castle, a hillfort suspected of being Camelot. In the other direction can be seen Brent Knoll, where Arthur is supposed to have fought a giant. The whole region is suffused with Arthurian legend.

Archaeological exploration of the Tor has shown that there was indeed some sort of complex here during the time of Arthur, but its nature is uncertain. The stories usually have the Tor as the site of Melwas' stronghold, the knight who abducted Guinevere and forced her rescue by Lancelot. Others, relating it to the Grail legends, would have it as the base of the Fisher King.

(c) Early British Kingdoms .com

The Tor is a special place in a very spiritual part of the country. The legends of Arthur, vibrant, colourful and mysterious even to the present day, take life here. Even if he was not buried here, did he walk these hills? Was this the centre of his lands? Was this Avalon? We will probably never know, we shall merely keep imagining, and as long as we keep imagining, the legends will never fade.

 

GAZETTEER

Following the footsteps of Arthur is a fascinating quest through some of the most attractive and historical sites in Britain. The following Gazetteer briefly describes the sites mentioned in this essay and its predecessors.

Tintagel   Coastal resort in Cornwall, site of Arthur's birthplace.  4.42'0"W, 50.42'0"N

Liddington Castle  Hillfort near Swindon, Wilts.  1.42'33"W, 51.30'30"N

Little Solsbury Hill  Hillfort near Bath, Somerset  2.20'03"W, 51.24'34"N

Badbury Rings  Hillfort near Wimborne Minster, Dorset  2.03'72"W, 50.49'21"N

Castle Killibury  Hillfort near Egloshayle, Cornwall  4.47'93"W 50.31'94"N

Caerleon  The Roman ISCA SILVRUM, Gwent  2.57'82"W, 51.36'13"N

Caerwent  The Roman VENTA SILVRVM, Gwent  2.46'70"W, 51.36'98"N

South Cadbury Castle  Hillfort near Ilchester, Somerset  2.31'49"W, 51.01'77"N

Slaughterbridge  Battle site near Camelford, Cornwall  4.40'05"W, 50.38'83"N

Birdoswald  Fort on Hadrian's Wall, Cumbria  2.36'67"W, 54.59'69"N

Glastonbury  Town in Somerset  2.43'79"W, 51.08'85"N

Bibliography

Early British Kingdoms www.earlybritishkingdoms.com

Britannia http://www.britannia.com/history/h12.htm

In The Footsteps of Arthur, Part Four: Camelot

  Aspects of the Arthur legend have achieved autonomy, have become legends in their own right: the Sword in the Stone, the Lady of the Lake, Merlin, Excalibur, Tristan and Iseult, the Isle of Avalon. Stories have been written that focus on these aspects, reducing Arthur to a background figure. Such is the scale of the Matter of Britain that, even in the medieval epics, peripheral figures have been granted their own stories. As well as introducing Arthur to a wide audience with his Historia Regum Brittaniae, Geoffrey of Monmouth also produced Vita Merlini. An anonymous scribe gave us Gawain and the Green Knight, and Malory's Morte D'Arthur owes its considerable length to vignettes of various individual knights undertaking quests and adventures.

  Another iconic aspect of the Arthurian sources is his home, his base, variably a 'many-tower'd' castle (1), a shining city, an emblem of high civilisation. This utopia epitomises Arthur's ideal of chivalry. It was first named by the Breton author Chretien de Troyes in his poem Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart. Written in the 1170's, this poem also contains the first reference to an affair between Lancelot and Guinevere. However, the name is mentioned in passing, giving no hint of its importance to later works (a fact that holds true for much of the Arthurian mythos). It is, of course, Camelot.

Engraving by Gustave Dore

  Earlier works refer to Arthur's base, but they have different names. Some are obscure, one is known. Let us take a look at a couple of these pre-Camelot sites.

Kelliwic

  A tale in the Mabinogion called Culhwch and Olwen may date to the 11th century. It tells the tale of Culhwch, a cousin of Arthur, and his attempts to woo a giant's daughter named Olwen. It also mentions 'Celli Wig' which can be translated as 'forest grove'; first as a site with a view: 'Drem son of Dremidydd... saw from Celli Wig in Cornwall as far as Pen Blathaon in Prydein' [a stupendous feat considering that 'Prydein' here means 'Pictland' - the Scottish Highlands!], and later as a destination: 'Arthur and his host went to Celli Wig in Cornwall', 'Arthur went thence to Celli Wig'.

  The site is also named in a collection of medieval manuscripts which preserve older Welsh folklore. Due to their rhetorical method of grouping places and people together in threes, these are known as the Welsh Triads/ Triads of the Isle of Britain/ Trioedd Ynys Prydein. Of Arthur's strongholds (three of them, of course) they have this to say:

'Arthur as Chief Prince in Mynyw...

Arthur as Chief Prince in Celliwig in Cerniw...

Arthur as Chief Prince in Pen Rhionydd in the North...'

  The location of 'Mynyw' is up for debate. It may be Aberffraw, a settlement on the Isle of Anglesey. Today a small village, it was the royal capital of Gwynedd between the 9th and 13th centuries. Its importance declined after the conquests of Edward I, when the buildings were dismantled to provide materials for the nearby Beaumaris castle. Caerleon and St. Davids have also been suggested as the site of Mynyw.

  'Pen Rhionydd' is even more obscure, and has been tentatively identified as Penrith in Cumbria, due to its modern Welsh name of 'Penrhudd'.

  These two sites fail to appear in subsequent material... but what of Celliwig? It appears to be sited with more certainty, as 'Cerniw' is the Welsh for Cornwall, but scholars have pointed out that variations also exist in Wales, e.g. Coedkernew near Newport, and a site called Gelliweg in Gwynedd. However, a Cornish legal document from 1302 mentions a 'Thomas de Kellewik', inferring that such a place did exist in Cornwall at least until the 13th century.

  With this in mind, the site has been sought out at various points in Cornwall. Callington, Gweek, Callywith and various promontories along the North Cornish coast have been mooted... but since Regency times, the focus has turned to a small Iron Age defended enclosure in the parish of Egloshayle, close to the A39 Atlantic Highway and just north of the town of Wadebridge. This site is known locally as 'Kelly Rounds', and more officially as 'Castle Killibury'.

'Kelly Rounds', covered in scrub

    It is a circular, bivallate (two defensive banks and ditches) enclosure which survives well on its northern side, but not so well on its southern due to ploughing and the presence of Sandylands Farm. Its diameter is between 220-250 metres, and traces exist of one and possibly two adjoining annexes. Archaeological exploration has shown that it was occupied as far back as 1250 B.C.E., the Bronze Age, although the defences probably date to the Iron Age, when the site was occupied between 400-100 B.C.E.

Castle Killibury (c) Google Earth

  And what has archaeology to show regarding the Arthurian period? Shards of pottery dating from the dark Ages have been found at Killibury, but not in any great quantity. They suggest settlement, but not on a large scale and not for a long period. Interestingly, though, the pottery is Tintagel-ware, found in great quantites at the site that has been proposed as Arthur's birthplace.

  Others have cast doubt on the idea that Kelliwic existed at all... pointing out that the 'forest grove' translation indicates an origin in the Celtic otherworld, a mythological context. In the absence of proof, let us turn to a site, much connected with Arthur, that most certainly exists.

Caerleon

  Caerleon-Upon-Usk, the Fortress of the Legion, was founded in 75 C.E., although the presence of the nearby hillfort at Lodge Hill shows that the area was already settled by the Silures tribe. It was the principle headquarters of the Second Legion Augusta, and was known by the names ISCA SILVRVM or ISCA AVGVSTA. The Legion was based here for over two centuries, until being moved to the Saxon Shore fort of RVTVPIAE at Richborough in Kent. After the Roman withdrawal, Caerleon may have become an important ecclesiastical centre, possibly due to the usefulness of remaining Roman buildings plus the association with two early Christian martyrs, Julius and Aaron. Its importance continued into medieval times with the construction of a Castle, and a pub next to the castle's only remaining tower played host to Alfred Lord Tennyson, who wrote his 'Idylls Of The King' while staying here. This work seriously revitalised the Arthur legend in the Victorian period.

Roman Caerleon

 The presence of Caerleon in Arthurian literature is an old one. It may be the 'Mynyw' mentioned in the Welsh Triads as one of Arthur's courts. The Mabinogion stories known as the Three Romances - Countess of the Fountain, Peredur Son of Efrawg and Gereint Son of Erbin all mention Arthur as being at Caerleon, as does Chretien de Troyes. The ninth-century Historia Brittonum lists Caerleon as the 11th most important city in Britain, and Geoffrey of Monmouth's influential Historia Regum Brittaniae certainly claims it as the King's main base.

Caerleon: Recent excavations have revealed a Roman quayside on the River Usk

 

  Modern Caerleon still has plenty of outstanding Roman remains. The ramparts can be followed for a distance, the sites of several barracks are available for public view and, protected by the Museum built around it, an excellent baths complex has been excavated. The most impressive remains, however, are those of the Amphitheatre. This has been known in the past as 'Arthur's Table', the place where the King and his advisors sat. There may well be a trace of historical truth in this. If Caerleon was indeed a major ecclesiastical centre in sub-Roman Britain, it would be a logical place for important meetings between leaders. If this be the case, the Amphitheatre at Caerleon could be the origin of the Round Table.

Roman Fortress wall at Caerleon

  It is certainly an inspirational site to visit. Other amphitheatres have survived to the modern age, the ones at Silchester and Cirencester being especially worthy of mention...  but there seems something a little special about the Caerleon site. Perhaps it's all the literary associations, stretching across legend as well as fact, perhaps it is merely imagination running riot. Or, perhaps, it's the Round Table.

Caerleon Roman Amphitheatre - the Round Table?

Others have claimed that the 'Caerleon' of the old stories may be referring to the Lodge Hill enclosure which dates back to the Iron Age and overlooks the town. Recent archaeological work has shown that late Roman and post-Roman activity took place at Lodge Hill, but not to a significant degree - certainly not to the degree that the site can be posited as the base of a major Dark Age chieftain.

Lodge Hill, Caerleon

 Other problems interfere with the identification of Caerleon as Camelot... the earliest being the first mention of Camelot by Chretien de Troyes, in his Lancelot Knight Of The Cart: 'Upon a certain Ascension Day King Arthur had come from Caerleon, and had held a very magnificent court at Camelot as was fitting on such a day.'

  As can plainly be seen, this very first historic mention of Camelot quite clearly states that it is NOT Caerleon! However, it may provide an indirect clue to another impressive site, only a few miles away... and now we turn to the first of two sites which I believe have the best claim upon Camelot.

Caerwent

  Troyes' passage seems to suggest that 'Camelot' was within easy travelling distance from Caerleon. This leads us naturally to the village of Caerwent, about eight miles to the east along the A48.

  Modern Caerwent is today a quiet village in the Welsh countryside, with views across to the older Severn Bridge... yet at one time it was important enough to provide the name for the surrounding county - Gwent. It originates in the second half of the first century, when the Romans built a town here in an attempt to 'Romanise' the local tribe, the somewhat bellicose Silures. The town was called VENTA SILVRVM, the 'Market Of The Silures', and may have been intended to replace a major Silures hillfort at Llanmelin (indeed, this hillfort has been suggested by some modern scholars as perhaps providing Troyes with the name 'Camelot', derived from Caer-Melin).

Llanmelin (c) David Ford Nash

  Although it was one of the smallest of Roman Britain's tribal capitals, Caerwent contained townhouses, shops, a basilica and forum constructed during the reign of Hadrian, a temple possibly dedicated to Mars-Ocelus, and in the mid-fourth century was surrounded by a defensive wall. The wall stands today around the perimeter of the village and is easily one of the most impressive survivals from Roman Britain.

Caerwent Roman Wall

   For those with an interest in history or archaeology, Caerwent is a joy to explore. Its walls stand to a height of several metres in places, and many other ruins are visible on ground level. A Norman motte stands in one corner of the defences. Laid out to public view are the foundations of several townhouses, the Romano-Celtic temple, and the Forum and Basilica. In the porch of the village church stands the Civitates Silurum stone, inscribed with Latin text that reads: 'For Tiberius Claudius Paulinus, legate of the Second Legion Augusta, proconsul of (Gallia) Narbonensis, imperial propraetorian legate of (Gallia) Lugdunensis. By decree of the ordines for public works on the tribal council of the Silures.' Another stone records a dedication to Mars-Ocelus and probably originates from the Temple.

The Civitates Silurum Stone

  And what of Caerwent's sub-Roman history, leading into the Arthurian age? It seems that the town continued in use following the Romans' departure in 410. Archaeological finds include jewellery that dates from the fifth to seventh centuries, and burials of the period have been found outside the East Gate and around the church.

Caerwent's Forum then...

...and now!

 Tradition associates Caerwent with a King of Gwent called Caradog Freichfras ('Strong Arm'), who was named as one of Arthur's Chief Elders in the Welsh Triads. At some point after 500 C.E., Caradog moved his court to Portskewett and donated Caerwent to the holy man St. Tathyw, who built an Abbey there. The modern dedication of Caerwent's church is to St. Stephen, a later corruption of Tathyw, and the age of the aforementioned burials would seem to back up this part of the tradition.

  So what else in the stories of Arthur might suggest Caerwent is Camelot? The biggest clue actually lies in the most famous of all Arthurian histories, Thomas Malory's Le Morte D'Arthur of c.1470. This describes Camelot as being the city of Winchester, and today the Great Hall of that venerable Hampshire town does indeed boast a medieval 'Round Table'.

Created in medieval times, decorated in Tudor times, the 'Round Table' hangs in the Great Hall at Winchester.

  However, this association with the Hampshire town is an error. In his Introduction to Le Morte D'Arthur, its publisher William Caxton describes it as being in Wales, and Malory's words actually read 'Camelot which is (called) in English, Winchester', thus suggesting that the name is not English. If this particular Winchester is in Wales, it would be known by its Welsh name, and the Welsh translation of Winchester (another VENTA in Roman times) is... Caerwent!

  Furthermore, Malory writes of a chapel at Camelot. Twelve rebellious Kings were buried there, and it also hosted the wedding of Arthur and Guinevere. The chapel, just like the church at Caerwent, was dedicated to St. Stephen. Could some of the Dark Age graves unearthed around the church be those of these rebellious Kings?

An aerial view of Caerwent clearly shows the circuit of the Walls. The Forum can be seen above the centre, with the Temple to its lower right. In the upper left quadrant can be found the bases of townhouses. St Stephen's Church can be seen across the road from the Temple.

  Caerwent, the Roman VENTA SILVRVM, is one of the jewels of Roman Britain, and has never been less than breathtaking on my various visits. It is easy, very easy, to stroll the circuit of its mighty walls and imagine oneself patrolling the ramparts of Camelot, and if Arthur's mighty fortress was indeed in Wales, this noble village must surely be a major contender.

  Others, however, would prefer the site of Camelot to be somewhere in the southwest of what is now England, and one site in particular has a serious claim to the title...


South Cadbury Castle

  One of the mightiest Iron Age hillforts in the Southwest lies a short distance from the A303 in Somerset, a few miles from Ilchester (the Roman LINDINIS). Occupation on the site goes back as far as Neolithic times, when a 'causewayed camp' (usually interpreted as a seasonal meeting-place for ritual and trading purposes) was constructed on the summit of the hill.

Cadbury's mighty ramparts from the air

  In the period preceding the Roman Conquest, the Durotriges tribe threw up mighty ramparts to protect their hillforts. Maiden Castle near Dorchester is the most impressive example, and Hod Hill, Hambledon Hill, and Badbury Rings (see previous essay on Badon Hill) also display this tribe's determination to resist the invaders. It did not work, of course; the Durotriges were subdued by the Second Legion Augusta, who even built a small fort within the ramparts of Hod Hill. In later centuries, the Durotriges became the chief providers of Black Burnished Ware pottery to the Roman Army and were provided with important towns at Dorchester (DURNOVARIA) and Ilchester (the aforementioned LINDINIS).

  So why would this particular site be associated with Camelot? The proximity of the villages Queen Camel and West Camel, plus the river Cam (a minor tributary of the Yeo) probably have much to do with it, but the association was first recorded in Tudor times by Henry VIII's favourite historian, John Leland.

Bust of Leland, probably by Roubilliac; engraving by Grignion (1772)

  While travelling around the country in 1542, looking for historic sites, Leland happened upon Cadbury. He had this to say about it:

'Right at the South end of South Cadbury Church stands Camalatte. This was once a noted town or castle, set on a real peak of a hill, and with marvellously strong natural defences to which are two enterings up by a very steep way: one by the North and one by the South West. The root of this hill is over a mile in cumpace. In the upper part of the hill there are 4 diches or and wooden trenches to make them stronger. At the top of the hill above alle trenches there is a great area of 20 acres (est.), where in diverse places foundations of walls can still be seen. There was a lot of blue stone which the people of the village have used again and taken away.
  'Roman coins of gold, silver and copper have been turned up in large quantities during ploughing there, and also in the fields at the foot of the hill, especially on the East side. Many other antiquities have also been found, including at Camelot, within memory, a silver horseshoe. The only information local people can offer is that they have heard that Arthur frequently came to Camalatte.'

  Inspired by Leland, the Camelot Research Group was set up in 1965 and the hillfort was subsequently excavated by the noted archaeologist Leslie Alcock, whose previous exavation at the hillfort Dinas Powys in Glamorgan rendered him eminently suitable for the task. What he uncovered at South Cadbury stunned the archaeological world...

A plan of Alcock's excavations

   Alcock discovered that the site had, indeed, undergone major refortification in Arthurian times. Roman masonry was imported, probably from ruined buildings in Ilchester, to strengthen the ramparts in stone and provide the base for a wooden walkway. A cobbled road led to the southwest entrance through the rampart, protected by a wooden gatehouse. On the summit itself, on a flat plateau known locally as 'Arthur's Palace', was uncovered the remains of a large feasting hall, measuring sixty-three by thirty-four feet. Associated with this was a quantity of the pottery known as Tintagel-ware, a distinctive relic from the Dark Ages. Smaller buildings clustered nearby. The site went out of use early in the seventh century but came back into use during the tenth, when a Mint and an (unfinished) church were built here during the reign of Aethelred II.

Artist's reconstruction of the gatehouse at South Cadbury

      The scale of the site indicates that a high-status individual from Arthurian times held sway at this spot. Some have argued that it might have been Cadwy, in literature a relative of Arthur whose main seat was at Dunster, about twenty miles to the west. The name Cadbury, 'Cadwy's Burgh' has been cited in defence of this theory. Nevertheless, no other hillfort in the country has revealed Dark Age construction on this scale, although similar Halls at the Roman town of Wroxeter (VIROCONIVM) and the Hadrian's Wall fort of Vindolanda (BANNA) have been associated speculatively with Arthur. It seems a remarkable coincidence that the only hillfort to reveal this sort of activity, dated to the right timeframe, would also be the only hillfort known as 'Camelot' to the locals, and have a large building on a spot known as Arthur's Palace!

South Cadbury Castle

  Those seeking an Arthur in the Southwest have struggled to identify prospective Camelots that come as close to South Cadbury as being the ideal site. From the ramparts, lofty views can be had across the Somerset countryside, stones from the Arthurian defences lay scattered here and there and, on a clear day, one can gaze across the Somerset Levels and see the unmistakeable bulk of Glastonbury Tor, since medieval times associated with Arthur's last resting-place... the Isle of Avalon.


Soon: Part Five, Avalon.


(1) Tennyson, The Lady Of Shalott 

Further Reading

Cornovia Weatherhill, Craig (1985) Cornwall Books, Tiverton
A Guide To The Roman Remains In Britain Wilson, Roger JA (1975) Constable, London
Arthur's Britain Alcock, Leslie (1971) Penguin, London
The Mabinogion trans: Jones & Jones (1949) Everyman, London
Early British Kingdoms Ford, David Nash http://www.earlybritishkingdoms.com/index.html
Brittania: King Arthur various http://www.britannia.com/history/h12.html

In the Footsteps of Arthur, Part Three: Badon Hill

Bardon Hill, Leics: one of the lesser candidates for Badon

'...After this, sometimes our countrymen, sometimes the enemy, won the field, to the end that our Lord might in this land try after his accustomed manner these his Israelites, whether they loved him or not, until the year of the siege of Bath-hill, when took place also the last almost, though not the least slaughter of our cruel foes, which was (as I am sure) forty-four years and one month after the landing of the Saxons, and also the time of my own nativity'.

  So wrote the holy man Gildas, in his 'On The Ruin And Conquest of Britain', composed in the first half of the sixth century. It is our earliest reference to a battle which, embellished by the legends of centuries, has come down to the modern age as Arthur's greatest triumph, the strife in which he beat back the Saxon hordes for generations and thus established (relative) peace in his time.

  Our earliest reference... yet it fails to mention the leader of  'our countrymen' during this engagement. It fails to mention which army was under seige. And, crucially, it fails to provide any context for the location of 'Bath-hill', in Gildas' original Latin 'Mons Badonicus'.

  Many claim that the leader of the Britons is named. The passage above is derived from Chapter 26 of Gildas. The closing paragraph of the preceding chapter has this... 'Ambrosius Aurelianus, a modest man, who of all the Roman nation was then alone in the confusion of this troubled period by chance left alive. His parents, who for their merit were adorned with the purple, had been slain in these same broils, and now his progeny in these our days, although shamefully degenerated from the worthiness of their ancestors, provoke to battle their cruel conquerors, and by the goodness of our Lord obtain the victory'.
  Ambrosius, descended from parents of significance in Romano-British society, united the Britons to fight the encroaching Anglo-Saxon menace. Many have concluded that the juxtaposition of these passages means that Ambrosius was the war-leader at Mons Badonicus, others have pointed out one of the many frustrating problems with Gildas' vague text: the gap between chapters, indicating a passage of time, and the more direct 'After this' that opens Chapter 26. Scholars are also undecided on the date of the battle, although many agree that it took place in the years around 500 C.E.

Statue of Gildas

  Not until the ninth century do we find further pertinent references to the battle, now known as Badon or Baddon. In the Annales Cambriae we find this mention accompanying the year 516: 'The Battle of Badon, in which Arthur carried the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ on his shoulders for three days and three nights and the Britons were victors'. Rendered a secondary source by the passage of centuries, this nevertheless gives us a leader... although no clue as to who was beseiging whom. In the Historia Brittonum, part of the British Historical Miscellany, we find 'The twelfth battle was on Mount Badon in which there fell in one day 960 men from one charge by Arthur; and no one struck them down except Arthur himself, and in all the wars he emerged as victor'. Here, Badon is the culmination of a dozen victories, although the Historia's bombastic description makes it rather difficult to take seriously.

  What of the claim in the Annales that Arthur carried a cross? This cannot be taken literally, as it would be physically impossible. It is the first reference to Arthur being a Christian, perhaps following on from various 'Lives Of Saints' that often portrayed him as something of a brigand who was not beyond raiding monasteries to finance the war effort... although in some cases the piety of the holy men made an impression on him. The 'cross' reference is also made in the Historia, although on that occasion it is attributed to Arthur's eighth battle. It is now assumed that 'shoulders' was a mistranslation of a word meaning 'shield'. It would certainly make more sense for a cross to be painted on a shield rather than carried into battle on shoulders.

A page from the Annales Cambriae

  Later, in the first great flowering of the Arthurian romances during the twelfth century, Geoffrey of Monmouth in his Historia Regum Brittaniae claims the city of Bath as the site of the siege, and Arthur as the attacker. However, the definitive collection of Arthurian legends, Thomas Mallory's Morte D'Arthur of c.1470, fails to mention Badon - although he has Arthur fighting eleven Kings, as opposed to twelve battles. Modern versions of the tale make little mention of Badon - it is referenced once in the satirical 'Monty Python and the Holy Grail', and used as the setpiece battle in the 2004 movie 'King Arthur' although, curiously, it is set at Hadrian's Wall - the location usually proposed for the later Battle of Camlann.

  To sum up: the pre-Galfridian sources initially make reference to a victory over the encroaching Anglo-Saxons by an unknown British warrior... that later becomes a Christian called Arthur who kills everyone with his own hands.

  Regardless of fanciful mythological embellishments, it remains almost certain that the Battle/Siege of Badon was a historical event. The dating of various archaeological digs has shown that the gradual westward advance of Anglo-Saxon culture was checked at some point during the sixth century, that for a period of about two generations they did not proceed any further from the lands they had already settled. This could certainly be explained as the result of a British victory that was decisive enough to create a demographic status quo. It wasn't until the Battle of Dyrham in 577 that the Saxons pierced Gloucestershire and drove a permanent wedge between the Britons of Wales and the Britons of the South-West. The Annales even mention a Second Battle of Badon, taking place during the busy year of 665 during which the Anglo Saxons converted to Christianity and a figure called 'Morgan' died. Once again, unfortunately, they fail to specify a location (or even the participants), but calling it the second battle, they may add weight to the tradition that there was a first.

  So what of the location? In the absence of historical or archaeological proof, many sites have been posited, often as a result of linguistic or toponymic investigations. This has proven something of an investigative minefield, as many scholars cannot agree even if the word Gildas used was derived from English or British. Three sites in the south of England, however, continually top the lists of most likely suspects, and we shall take a closer look at them: Liddington Castle, a hillfort in Wiltshire; Little Solsbury Hill, a hillfort to the east of Bath in Somerset; and Badbury Rings, a hillfort in Dorset. I have driven past the first on many occasions, seen the second from a train window, and physically visited the third.

Liddington Castle

  Regular travellers along the M4 through Wiltshire will be familiar with this landmark, even if they do not know its name. It stands just south-east of  Junction 15, the Swindon/ Marlborough exit, and stands 277 metres above sea-level. The Ridgeway, the long-distance footpath between Bedfordshire and Salisbury Plain, passes over the site.

Evocative: Liddington Castle

  It is not a castle in the conventional medieval sense, of course. Liddington is a hillfort, a hilltop site surrounded by a defensive ditch and rampart. Most hillforts date to the Iron Age, and Liddington is an early example - first traces of occupation on this elevated spot have been dated to about 700 B.C.E. It does not seem to have achieved the longevity of most hillforts, being abandoned after about two hundred years, although traces have been located of Romano-British activity a few hundred years later. No occupation has been traced dating to c.500 C.E., and no relics of ancient battles. Its heightened position makes it the highest point in the Borough of Swindon, and as such it commands views north to the Cotswolds and south toward the Marlborough Downs. It is unsure which tribe used the site, as it stands in a borderland area beween the Dobunni and the Durotriges.

Liddington Castle (aerial) (c) Google Maps

  Three reasons exist for suspecting Liddington to be Badon Hill. It stands close to the strategically important area that was later lost in the Battle of Dyrham, an area which provided the link between British tribes of Wales and the South-West, and we can therefore assume that it would have been hotly contested. It stands close to the important Roman roads between CORINIVM (Cirencester), VENTA (Winchester), CVNETIO (Mildenhall) and CALLEVA (Silchester), and those arteries would have been the routes used by travelling armies. Thirdly, the toponymic argument: a hamlet at the foot of the hill is called 'Badbury'.

  Although Ridgeway ramblers may be familiar with the site, the lack of a carpark means that Liddington is not much frequented by the casual visitor, and as such can be a lonely yet evocative site. Its prominence in the landscape certainly promotes flights of historic imagination.

Liddington: Ditch and Rampart

Little Solsbury Hill

Climbing up on Solsbury Hill
I could see the city light
Wind was blowing, time stood still
Eagle flew out of the night 

  So wrote - and sang - the musical artist Peter Gabriel, about his visit to a place that clearly had an effect on him. The 'city' overlooked by Solsbury is Bath. One would certainly imagine that it is windy, and no great leap of ther imagination is needed for time to stand still at any remote historic site. As for the eagle... well, we'll leave that for others to ponder.

(c)Ordnance Survey

  Solsbury is a popular contender for Badon, and the reasons are clear. Agreements/disagreements continue to be expressed regarding the linguistic connections between Bath/Baddon ('Bath-on')/Badon. Indeed, the Historia Brittonum makes mention of the 'baths of Badon'. Like the other serious contenders, it stands close to major Roman roads; from the east came the road from LONDINIVM, still followed in places by the modern A4, the old Great West Road. From the SW came the Foss Way, starting at ISCA (Exeter) and passing through Bath on its way to LINDVM (Lincoln). It is easy to imagine an invading Saxon horde approaching from the east and being checked by a British force from the Southwest at this spot. Bath still existed around 500 C.E., the approximate date of the battle, and one can evoke the army of Arthur bivouacking in the crumbling city of AQVAE SVLIS while the defiant Saxons roared derision from the hillfort above. Even today, the ruins of the Roman springs at Bath, the Waters of Sulis, are remarkable.

Bath

Solsbury probably derived its name from Sulis, the Celtic goddess of the spring. She was being venerated at the hot springs as far back as the Iron Age, and the Romans conflated her with their goddess Minerva. Her name may possibly have left traces further along the road to London, at the Wiltshire sites of Silbury Hill and Swallowhead Spring, both of which are also associated with waters rising from the ground.

  The hill became a fort, almost certainly of the Durotriges tribe, around 300 B.C.E when a single ditch and rampart, with drystone facing both inside and out, was thrown up to protect a triangular plateau on the peak. It was abandoned about two centuries later. At its peak it contained wattle-and-daub roundhouses, but many seem to have been destroyed during a period of disturbance which may have coincided with a Belgic invasion about a century before the Romans arrived. This destruction seems to have signalled the end of Solsbury as an occupation site; the only other evidence of later activity lies in two small, abandoned quarries on the W and NW of the hill.

  The author Bernard Cornwell, in his Warlord Chronicles, used this site as Mynydd Baddon, and had Arthur scoring a major victory against the forces of Aelle the Saxon. This follows from Geoffrey of Monmouth's supposition that the battle took place here. In Cornwell's version, however, it was the Britons who were beseiged behind the rampart (eschewing the ambiguity of earlier references).

  The case for Solsbury being the site of Badon seems quite strong on etymological grounds, yet some linguists have argued otherwise. Gildas was the first to mention 'Badon', yet others point out that this is an English word - and why would Gildas, writing in Latin but with a British background, use an English word for a place that was not yet in England? The argument goes that, if 'Badon' is derived from a Celtic word, it probably has a completely different - and now lost - meaning from 'Bath'.

View of Bath from Solsbury Hill

  Still, the possibility exists that Gildas, for reasons unknown, may have opted to use an English word... and if Badon Hill was indeed an imposing hillfort near a crux of roads, then Little Solsbury Hill is as good a contender as any. For those - like me - who have never got around to climbing it, good views can be had from the A4 as it heads from Bath toward Chippenham, and also from the Great Western Railway on the east of the city.

Solsbury from the SE

Vindocladia/Badbury Rings

  There are several hillforts known as Badbury Rings, but the best-known - and the one with which we are concerned here - lies in Dorset, almost equidistant between Bournemouth and Blandford Forum. It is the only one of our three prospective sites which I have personally visited.

  Thanks mostly to Roman activity in the area, more is known of the history of this site than our previous two contenders. There was activity here in the Bronze Age, as evidenced by the presence outside the complex of several 'round barrows', burial mounds of the period. There are multiple defences dating from the subsequent Iron Age. Originally, a triple rampart-ditch defence (known as trivallate) was thrown up surrounding an area of 18 acres. This occurred in about 800 B.C.E. At a later date, possibly in anticipation of Belgic or Roman invasion and in common with other forts held by the Durotriges tribe, the defences were enlarged. A single ditch and rampart (known as univallate) was thrown around the existing area, enclosing some 41 acres.

Badbury Rings (c) National Trust

  Of our three contenders, this is the site that almost certainly saw a battle. Four and a half centuries prior to the Battle of Badon, in 43 C.E., the Romans invaded under the orders of Emperor Claudius. One of the invading legions, Legio II Augusta, was commanded to sweep across the south and pacify the hostile tribes they might encounter. The Durotriges had constructed the mightiest hillforts in the country - Maiden Castle, Hod Hill and Hambledon Hill standing as magnificent examples - so it may be assumed that the Durotriges were hostile. The legion, under the command of the future emperor Vespasian, is recorded in Roman sources as having subdued twenty hostile settlements. It can be safely assumed that Badbury Rings was one of them.

  Two Roman forts were established in the area - a large vexallation fortress at Lake Farm to the south-east, and a smaller fort at Shapwick to the southwest. The displaced residents of the hillfort seem to have been settled in a new community outside the ramparts, a site known as Vindocladia. It would have been a convenient place for passing trade, as a Roman road network met here. From the south came a road from Poole Harbour, from the north a road leading possibly to stone quarries at modern Lady Down. From the southwest came Ackling Dyke, the road from DVRNOVARIA (Dorchester) to CALLEVA (Silchester).

Badbury Rings information board

  By the year 500 Vindocladia was gone, but the road network and the impressive defences of the abandoned hillfort remained. The Saxons approached, and evidence remains of attempts to stem the tide; an earthwork named Bokerley Dyke, built right across the Ackling Dyke between Old Sarum and Badbury, may be evidence of this resistance. Alternatively, a Saxon fleet could dock at Poole Harbour and head north. Either way, they would have followed the Roman roads and come upon Badbury Rings.

  In these circumstances, it would be tactically reasonable to assume that a British force would station itself at Badbury to guard the Ackling Dyke threats from both directions. In this instance, it would be the British under seige.

The approach to Badbury Rings

  Badbury is an evocative site, its plateau now wooded, its ramparts still mighty, traces of the Roman roads still visible on the ground. When I visited in 1995, I was with a 'sensitive' companion who could feel vibes of foreboding from the site, the fearful sense of approaching conflict. Whether this harks back to the Roman invasion, the Battle of Badon or the briefly recorded Second Battle of Badon in 655, is a matter of conjecture.

  We do, however, have evidence of a later military use of Badbury Rings. In the year 899, King Edward the Elder - son of Alfred the Great - was challenged by his cousin Athelwold. As the would-be usurper was based at nearby Wimborne Minster, Edward stationed troops at Badbury to counter this threat.

Barrows outside Badbury Rings. The track behind the hedgerow is a Roman road. Image (c) Hamish Fenton at 'The Megalithic Portal'

Conclusion

  Very few conclusions can be reached, on the basis of available evidence. We have three main contenders for Badon Hill. Liddington and Solsbury are lofty plateaus defended by a single ditch and rampart. Badbury is not so lofty, but its defences are far mightier. All of them stand in strategically important areas, and all of them stand near the junctions of Roman roads.

  I am inclined to favour Badbury, not just because I've seen it up close (which I can't deny affects objectivity), but because the activity in the area during Roman times shows its importance. That same importance would have been pertinent in the Dark Ages, with another invading army coming from the same direction, and we have evidence from that period of defensive works being commissioned along at least one of Badbury's approaches. In the absence of 'smoking gun' evidence, nothing can be claimed with any degree of certainty - yet one thing remains true. It is the search that matters. It is the slow, gradual accumulation of knowledge and experience, the awakening to the rich tapestry of British history, the interwoven web of history and folklore, and the chance - when following Arthur - to visit some of the most evocative places in these Isles.

Soon: In The Footsteps of Arthur, Part Four: Camelot


Further Reading

Liddington Castle:
Megalithic Portal
Youtube
The Modern Antiquarian

Little Solsbury Hill:
Megalithic Portal
The Modern Antiquarian

Badbury Rings:
Heritage Trail
The Modern Antiquarian

Badon Hill:
Gildas: On The Ruin And Conquest of Britain
Bath as Badon?
12 Battles